ByzantineCaesar
Tribune of the Plebs
- Location
- São Paulo, SP, Brazil
THE FLOWERING
Grief, Love and Architecture in Modern Florence
Part I: The Dreamers and the Builders
1739-1740s
VIEW OF FLORENCE FROM MONS FLORENTINUS
What is art? What is beauty, and why do men pursue art and beauty with such intensity? These are age old questions that have awed human civilizations since times immemorial, with ready and universal answers often deemed to be impossible. Out of all the dynasts who ruled polities in their time, the Medici were perhaps among the foremost to be troubled by such concerns. After all, the godfathers of the Renaissance knew one thing or two about art and the pursuit of beauty. It required constancy, as a lush and yet fickle garden cultivated only through sheer herculean efforts across multiple generations. It required talent, both to create beauty and to find and amass the creators. And it required money, for in those times the pursuit of beauty was an expensive affair, capable of moving an entire industry on its own. These were the principal ingredients that constituted the patronage of arts, but what was it, in truth, that pushed the creators to create, and the sponsors to sponsor their creations? The more cynical would point towards the establishment of networks of clientele and the gaining of prestige through patronage, while the moneyed could note that it was a way of showing off their wealth, and not an end in itself. But what about when beauty was an end in itself? What could be the motivator for the creation of true art?
The Medici, godfathers as they were, did not possess all the answers, but they did know something. In the first half of the fifteenth century, the wealth and intense patronage of their famed progenitor, Cosimo the Elder, had almost single-handedly made Florence the beating heart of the Italian Renaissance, so much that the Florentines declared him Pater Patriae after his death. Cosimo the Elder had been a deeply religious man. At the same time, he had been a banker, and a statesman, both professions that did not necessarily complement his religiosity very well. Cosimo the Elder had been a man plagued by his demons, and from the immense guilt he bore on his shoulders the modern world had been created to supplant the old one. Guilt could be a powerful motivator for the pursuit of beauty, as if the act of creating beauty washed away all the ugliness within. Cosimo's guilt had led him to create beautiful things, masterpieces of unparalleled beauty. It had been so powerful that it crossed generations and reached across centuries.
Cosimo IV de' Medici shared more similarities with his namesake and progenitor than he realized. Religious guilt had pushed Cosimo the Elder towards greatness. Cosimo Ferdinando, although a devout Catholic, could not claim to suffer from the same kind of self-flagellating spirituality as Pater Patriae. But he did have a claim to suffering. The year of 1738 had brought many challenges to the thirty year old monarch, but none had left him as shaken as the two events that had threatened to uproot his entire world. The first had been, beyond a doubt, the death of his beloved mother, the Dowager Queen Violante Beatrice of Bavaria. Mother and son had been close, and Cosimo IV himself had depended on the Dowager to rule early in his reign. Violante's death had left the Most Serene King broken and depressed. The Queen had barely been laid to rest in the overcrowded Medici necropolis at the basilica of San Lorenzo when a second tragedy struck the grieving monarch. Malaria was a recurrent disease in the marsh-infested countryside of Tuscany, even after three decades worth of efforts for land reclamation and drainage. 1738 proved to be a particularly bad year. News came from Pisa of the passing of the renowned jurist and naturalist Giuseppe Averani, under whom Cosimo had reverently studied in his youth. The King's state of mind was only worsened when his own son and heir, Cosimo Ottaviano, fell ill and was confined to a sickbed for weeks.
Although the Grand Prince would make a full recovery, the near death of his eldest son, combined with the loss of Averanus and the Queen Dowager, all in quick succession, left Cosimo IV badly shaken. Whereas other Medici would simply give in to melancholy (either through debauchery or secluded prayer), Cosimo IV followed in the footsteps of his namesake, Pater Patriae. He would turn his suffering, his emotion, into something far larger than his own person. He would create beauty to wash away the ugly. On the linen shrouds of his loved ones, a new Florence would rise, one made of beauty, plenty and light to cast away the growing darkness.
The Medici, godfathers as they were, did not possess all the answers, but they did know something. In the first half of the fifteenth century, the wealth and intense patronage of their famed progenitor, Cosimo the Elder, had almost single-handedly made Florence the beating heart of the Italian Renaissance, so much that the Florentines declared him Pater Patriae after his death. Cosimo the Elder had been a deeply religious man. At the same time, he had been a banker, and a statesman, both professions that did not necessarily complement his religiosity very well. Cosimo the Elder had been a man plagued by his demons, and from the immense guilt he bore on his shoulders the modern world had been created to supplant the old one. Guilt could be a powerful motivator for the pursuit of beauty, as if the act of creating beauty washed away all the ugliness within. Cosimo's guilt had led him to create beautiful things, masterpieces of unparalleled beauty. It had been so powerful that it crossed generations and reached across centuries.
Cosimo IV de' Medici shared more similarities with his namesake and progenitor than he realized. Religious guilt had pushed Cosimo the Elder towards greatness. Cosimo Ferdinando, although a devout Catholic, could not claim to suffer from the same kind of self-flagellating spirituality as Pater Patriae. But he did have a claim to suffering. The year of 1738 had brought many challenges to the thirty year old monarch, but none had left him as shaken as the two events that had threatened to uproot his entire world. The first had been, beyond a doubt, the death of his beloved mother, the Dowager Queen Violante Beatrice of Bavaria. Mother and son had been close, and Cosimo IV himself had depended on the Dowager to rule early in his reign. Violante's death had left the Most Serene King broken and depressed. The Queen had barely been laid to rest in the overcrowded Medici necropolis at the basilica of San Lorenzo when a second tragedy struck the grieving monarch. Malaria was a recurrent disease in the marsh-infested countryside of Tuscany, even after three decades worth of efforts for land reclamation and drainage. 1738 proved to be a particularly bad year. News came from Pisa of the passing of the renowned jurist and naturalist Giuseppe Averani, under whom Cosimo had reverently studied in his youth. The King's state of mind was only worsened when his own son and heir, Cosimo Ottaviano, fell ill and was confined to a sickbed for weeks.
Although the Grand Prince would make a full recovery, the near death of his eldest son, combined with the loss of Averanus and the Queen Dowager, all in quick succession, left Cosimo IV badly shaken. Whereas other Medici would simply give in to melancholy (either through debauchery or secluded prayer), Cosimo IV followed in the footsteps of his namesake, Pater Patriae. He would turn his suffering, his emotion, into something far larger than his own person. He would create beauty to wash away the ugly. On the linen shrouds of his loved ones, a new Florence would rise, one made of beauty, plenty and light to cast away the growing darkness.
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A map of Florence in the mid-18th century, prior to the Flowering. The old city can be seen on the northern bank of the Arno river. The Oltrarno district, far smaller and underdeveloped, lies on the southern bank, with the Pitti Palace and the Boboli gardens being the main landmarks, just across the Ponte Vecchio. Mons Florentinus, the highest point of the city, lies to the east of the southern bank, outside of the medieval city walls, where the church of San Salvatore al Monte and the abbey of San Miniato al Monte can be seen.
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A map of Florence in the mid-18th century, prior to the Flowering. The old city can be seen on the northern bank of the Arno river. The Oltrarno district, far smaller and underdeveloped, lies on the southern bank, with the Pitti Palace and the Boboli gardens being the main landmarks, just across the Ponte Vecchio. Mons Florentinus, the highest point of the city, lies to the east of the southern bank, outside of the medieval city walls, where the church of San Salvatore al Monte and the abbey of San Miniato al Monte can be seen.
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The last grand building projects to be undertaken in Florence dated from the second half of the sixteenth century. The first Grand Duke, Cosimo I, and his court architect, the famous Giorgio Vasari, would transform the urban landscape of Florence, with the erection and renovation of bridges, the construction of the Uffizi and the development of the Oltrarno district centered around the Pitti Palace, which became the main residence of the grand-ducal court in his reign. Cosimo's successor Ferdinando I would further contribute to the beauty, though his reign was most preoccupied with projects in Pisa (concerning the Order of Santo Stefano) and, of course, the creation of the prosperous port city of Livorno out of thin air. On the other hand, the crisis of the seventeenth century had been unkind to the Medici Grand Dukes. Florence, and Tuscany at large, came to suffer from depopulation, and the grand-ducal treasury was depleted. By 1740, however, the situation had changed, both due to the general improvement of global conditions and the Fernandine reforms. The redevelopment of the country also directly impacted Florence. In 1700, La Dominante had been a depopulated mess of priests, nuns and a repressed citizenry living under a regime of religious terror. By 1740, the city had grown again, both in numbers and in wealth, and had seen its place as the cultural and artistic capital of Italy rightfully restored.
Of course, the Grand Wedding of 1727, through its many preparations, on the one hand, and its lasting effects on the local industry, on the other, had played a crucial role in the restoration of Florence to what it had once been. The varied stimuli to the cultural industries and the return of pageantry and street festivals are widely known. What is often overlooked, however, is that the preparations for the Grand Wedding also included an urban project that impacted the Oltrarno district, namely the construction of palatial apartments and residences on the southern riverbank to host the massive foreign delegations during the wedding. These constructions pointed towards a courtly interest in developing the Oltrarno district, moving away from the old medieval city in the northern riverbank to establish a more modern city across the Arno, grounded on modern principles and design. Thus, when Cosimo IV and his councilors decided to embark on an urban renewal project in 1738, he chose to devote his attention to the underdeveloped Oltrarno, rather than to tear down the old city and start anew. Practical concerns were also taken into consideration, first and foremost engineering an adequate solution to the recurring flooding of the Arno river, which had been plaguing the city since its foundation.
Admittedly, these practical concerns were not at the forefront of Cosimo IV's mind. In his melancholy, he desired to create beauty, and not to destroy the old. These practicalities even caused the King to clash with his ministry, at some points. The Corsini Cabinet, headed by the Grand Chancellor Bartolomeo Corsini, Marquis of Tresana and Prince of Sismano, was preoccupied with the war in the Kingdom of Africa. Indeed, in some social circles it was whispered that the Marquis Corsini, an old soldier, only clung to power for as long as there was a war for him to fight. The marquis had been appointed Grand Chancellor in 1727, following the collapse of the Bavariocracy, shortly after the King's majority. Bartolomeo Corsini had overseen the Conquest of Tunis in 1728, the War of Bavarian Succession in 1731 and the consolidation of Tunisia thereafter. The Corsini Cabinet had established military schools to train officers and engineers, and state workshops to produce ironworks, weapons and armaments. The marquis had retained his job because he was good at it, and because he was needed. Now, however, the King's ambitious projects in Florence threatened to endanger the war effort in Tunisia, both in terms of resources and available manpower. The Most Serene King acknowledged the Grand Chancellor's concerns, but dismissed them. Foreign funding and assistance were more than enough to wage the colonial conflict beyond the sea, he claimed, and stated that life had to go on. In the end, Corsini had give in, fearing dismissal. Cosimo IV was no longer a child, but had fully grown into his position. And, if the King was distracted with his building projects, at least the marquis would have a freer rein in other matters of state.
With the decision having been taken and the resources set aside, all that remained was the assembling of talent.
Of course, the Grand Wedding of 1727, through its many preparations, on the one hand, and its lasting effects on the local industry, on the other, had played a crucial role in the restoration of Florence to what it had once been. The varied stimuli to the cultural industries and the return of pageantry and street festivals are widely known. What is often overlooked, however, is that the preparations for the Grand Wedding also included an urban project that impacted the Oltrarno district, namely the construction of palatial apartments and residences on the southern riverbank to host the massive foreign delegations during the wedding. These constructions pointed towards a courtly interest in developing the Oltrarno district, moving away from the old medieval city in the northern riverbank to establish a more modern city across the Arno, grounded on modern principles and design. Thus, when Cosimo IV and his councilors decided to embark on an urban renewal project in 1738, he chose to devote his attention to the underdeveloped Oltrarno, rather than to tear down the old city and start anew. Practical concerns were also taken into consideration, first and foremost engineering an adequate solution to the recurring flooding of the Arno river, which had been plaguing the city since its foundation.
Admittedly, these practical concerns were not at the forefront of Cosimo IV's mind. In his melancholy, he desired to create beauty, and not to destroy the old. These practicalities even caused the King to clash with his ministry, at some points. The Corsini Cabinet, headed by the Grand Chancellor Bartolomeo Corsini, Marquis of Tresana and Prince of Sismano, was preoccupied with the war in the Kingdom of Africa. Indeed, in some social circles it was whispered that the Marquis Corsini, an old soldier, only clung to power for as long as there was a war for him to fight. The marquis had been appointed Grand Chancellor in 1727, following the collapse of the Bavariocracy, shortly after the King's majority. Bartolomeo Corsini had overseen the Conquest of Tunis in 1728, the War of Bavarian Succession in 1731 and the consolidation of Tunisia thereafter. The Corsini Cabinet had established military schools to train officers and engineers, and state workshops to produce ironworks, weapons and armaments. The marquis had retained his job because he was good at it, and because he was needed. Now, however, the King's ambitious projects in Florence threatened to endanger the war effort in Tunisia, both in terms of resources and available manpower. The Most Serene King acknowledged the Grand Chancellor's concerns, but dismissed them. Foreign funding and assistance were more than enough to wage the colonial conflict beyond the sea, he claimed, and stated that life had to go on. In the end, Corsini had give in, fearing dismissal. Cosimo IV was no longer a child, but had fully grown into his position. And, if the King was distracted with his building projects, at least the marquis would have a freer rein in other matters of state.
With the decision having been taken and the resources set aside, all that remained was the assembling of talent.
FERDINANDO FUGA
It can be correctly stated that the architectural environment in the first half of the eighteenth century in Tuscany was dominated by the friendly rivalry between Alessandro Galilei and Ferdinando Fuga, both brilliant architects of Florentine extract who left their mark on Italy (and beyond) throughout their long and accomplished careers. While Galilei, a scion of the same aristocratic family that birthed Galileo, often enjoyed greater standing and favor than his peer, the talent and influence of Ferdinando Fuga cannot be underestimated. Fuga was born in Florence in November 1699. His mother's family had long served in the local civic administration, while his father had been born in Murano. In the Venetian Carnival of 1696, the elder Fuga had made the acquaintance of Ferdinando de' Medici, then Grand Prince, who would later rise to the throne as Ferdinando III, taking him back to Florence as his chamberlain. Indeed, Ferdinando Fuga would be named after the Medici Grand Prince, who served as his godfather, testifying to the close relationship between the Fuga family and the House of Medici. He grew up in Florence, where he was the pupil of Giovan Battista Foggini, a well regarded sculptor and architect who was one of the protagonists of the Florentine Baroque.
Finding little space for his work in Florence, Fuga settled in Rome in 1718. He soon established himself as a rising star in the architectural circles, though he would only really come into his own after the election of Francesco Maria de' Medici as Pope Innocent XIII. The Medici Pope favored all things Florentine, and architects were not exempt from this rule. Whereas Alessandro Galilei received major commissions such as the rework of the façade of the Lateran Basilica, Fuga was also allowed to shine. Although he was unsuccessful in submitting his design to the Fontana di Trevi (a project which would ultimately be awarded to the Roman Nicola Salvi), he received the commission for the façades of the basilicas of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere and Santa Maria Maggiore, whose reconstruction and renovations definitely put him in the spotlight.
In 1727, with Galilei occupied as Secretary of the Royal Household in Tuscany for the Grand Wedding, the Cardinal de' Medici appointed Fuga as the Architect of Sacred Palaces, a position he would later retain over the first decade of Innocent XIV's pontificate. In this position, Fuga would design and build the Palazzo della Consulta for the Cardinal-Secretary of State, as the seat of the chancellery of the Holy See, his finest palatial work (notwithstanding the Palazzo Corsini in Rome, which Fuga designed for Cardinal Neri Maria Corsini in the 1730's). Innocent XIV would provide him with further commissions over the 1730's for the expansion of the Quirinal Palace and the completion of the Manica Lunga wing, including its much celebrated coffee house. The Quirinale coffee house points towards a change in Fuga's style. Having begun as a pupil and an architect of the Baroque, over his career Ferdinando Fuga would increasingly adopt pioneering principles and techniques of Neoclassicism, although he would never fully embrace the new style as Galilei had. The coffeehouse's Neoclassical design highlights the central role played by Fuga in the transition between both styles in Italian circles, which would remain a trademark of Ferdinando Fuga throughout his career. Regardless, Fuga rose to become one of the foremost Italian architects of his time, sharing that honor with Galilei, Nicola Salvi and the Neapolitan Luigi Vanvitelli.
Finding little space for his work in Florence, Fuga settled in Rome in 1718. He soon established himself as a rising star in the architectural circles, though he would only really come into his own after the election of Francesco Maria de' Medici as Pope Innocent XIII. The Medici Pope favored all things Florentine, and architects were not exempt from this rule. Whereas Alessandro Galilei received major commissions such as the rework of the façade of the Lateran Basilica, Fuga was also allowed to shine. Although he was unsuccessful in submitting his design to the Fontana di Trevi (a project which would ultimately be awarded to the Roman Nicola Salvi), he received the commission for the façades of the basilicas of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere and Santa Maria Maggiore, whose reconstruction and renovations definitely put him in the spotlight.
In 1727, with Galilei occupied as Secretary of the Royal Household in Tuscany for the Grand Wedding, the Cardinal de' Medici appointed Fuga as the Architect of Sacred Palaces, a position he would later retain over the first decade of Innocent XIV's pontificate. In this position, Fuga would design and build the Palazzo della Consulta for the Cardinal-Secretary of State, as the seat of the chancellery of the Holy See, his finest palatial work (notwithstanding the Palazzo Corsini in Rome, which Fuga designed for Cardinal Neri Maria Corsini in the 1730's). Innocent XIV would provide him with further commissions over the 1730's for the expansion of the Quirinal Palace and the completion of the Manica Lunga wing, including its much celebrated coffee house. The Quirinale coffee house points towards a change in Fuga's style. Having begun as a pupil and an architect of the Baroque, over his career Ferdinando Fuga would increasingly adopt pioneering principles and techniques of Neoclassicism, although he would never fully embrace the new style as Galilei had. The coffeehouse's Neoclassical design highlights the central role played by Fuga in the transition between both styles in Italian circles, which would remain a trademark of Ferdinando Fuga throughout his career. Regardless, Fuga rose to become one of the foremost Italian architects of his time, sharing that honor with Galilei, Nicola Salvi and the Neapolitan Luigi Vanvitelli.
SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE
PALAZZO DELLA CONSULTA
QUIRINALE COFFEE HOUSE
While Ferdinando Fuga's career was principally centered in Rome (including not infrequent commissions in Florence as well), Alessandro Galilei's was far more eclectic. Born as Alessandro Maria Gaetano Galilei in August 1691 in the city of Florence, he hailed from an old Florentine aristocratic family which had produced many notables over the centuries, including the eponymous Galileo. While Fuga had studied under a baroque architect and sculptor, Galilei was instructed in the arts and science of architecture and engineering by Antonio Maria Ferri, an outstanding figure of the Accademia dei Nobili whose main field of expertise was military engineering, fortifications and artillery. One can assume that Galilei's pioneering predisposition towards Neoclassicism, a more functional style than the intricately ornate Baroque, may be credited to his early education as a mathematician and military engineer, a venue of employment which he explored prior to fully committing to monumental architecture. Even then, Galilei would continue serving as a military architect, as seen later in his work in Tunisia.
As was the case with Fuga, however, the early 1710's Florence was not a welcoming place for ambitious architects. Unlike Fuga, however, Galilei did not seek refuge in Rome. Instead, he looked farther beyond. Benefiting from a sincere friendship with the English envoy at the Tuscan court, the Hon. John Molesworth, the young Galilei booked a passage from Livorno to London, arriving there in August 1714. He enjoyed the hospitality of the Molesworth family, which was not without influence in social and political circles and possessed vast estates in both England and Ireland. The Viscount Molesworth was a member of the Royal Society, a connection which would prove very valuable to Galilei during his stay there. At the time, the English circles were influenced by Neo-Palladian architecture, rejecting the Catholic Baroque style, a situation which suited the young Italian architect just fine, and would in turn influence him as he matured. Galilei would come to try to emulate, in his own words, "the beautiful and simple architecture of the ancients". According to him, good taste was expressed through simplicity, firmness, proportion and correlation. "Our century is much inclined to abandon this beautiful simplicity from which derives the principal foundation of good architecture," Galilei would write later, in 1723, when he had already returned to Italy, "which is now ruined because straight lines and right-angles are eschewed and everything that is essential to good taste is avoided as being something monstrous."
At London, Galilei would find fertile ground hone his skills. The government of the time was in the midst of promoting the construction of dozens of churches in the capital. Galilei designed at least seven projects. Although none would be commissioned, the work proved captivating, as Galilei was able to free himself of the shackles imposed by the Italian Baroque and fully embrace Neo-Palladian and the emerging Neoclassical style. Out of the seven London church projects, the most astonishing was Galilei's design based on a Doric temple, consisting of a rectangular building, five bays in width and eight in length, standing on a podium of eight steps and surrounded on three sides by an order of freestanding Doric columns; a far cry away from the style that dominated Italy at the time. The Doric temple also stood out as Galilei's only project proposing a rectangular church; elsewhere, he favored circular, square or octagonal layouts, entirely rejecting the traditional basilical forms of his homeland. Afterwards, Galilei acquired a taste for palatial architecture. In 1717, he designed a new royal palace for His Britannic Majesty by the Thames, but in the end he had to content himself with serving lesser patrons and landed nobility, designing Castletown House in Ireland and the east portico of Kimbolton Castle in Cambridgeshire, among other country houses. By 1719, Galilei had grown frustrated with his English clientele and, profusely thanking Lord Molesworth for his patronage, left for Tuscany and returned home. His five year stay in England had not made him rich or renowned... but it had given him the required time to come into his own as an innovative architect with innovative ideas.
As was the case with Fuga, however, the early 1710's Florence was not a welcoming place for ambitious architects. Unlike Fuga, however, Galilei did not seek refuge in Rome. Instead, he looked farther beyond. Benefiting from a sincere friendship with the English envoy at the Tuscan court, the Hon. John Molesworth, the young Galilei booked a passage from Livorno to London, arriving there in August 1714. He enjoyed the hospitality of the Molesworth family, which was not without influence in social and political circles and possessed vast estates in both England and Ireland. The Viscount Molesworth was a member of the Royal Society, a connection which would prove very valuable to Galilei during his stay there. At the time, the English circles were influenced by Neo-Palladian architecture, rejecting the Catholic Baroque style, a situation which suited the young Italian architect just fine, and would in turn influence him as he matured. Galilei would come to try to emulate, in his own words, "the beautiful and simple architecture of the ancients". According to him, good taste was expressed through simplicity, firmness, proportion and correlation. "Our century is much inclined to abandon this beautiful simplicity from which derives the principal foundation of good architecture," Galilei would write later, in 1723, when he had already returned to Italy, "which is now ruined because straight lines and right-angles are eschewed and everything that is essential to good taste is avoided as being something monstrous."
At London, Galilei would find fertile ground hone his skills. The government of the time was in the midst of promoting the construction of dozens of churches in the capital. Galilei designed at least seven projects. Although none would be commissioned, the work proved captivating, as Galilei was able to free himself of the shackles imposed by the Italian Baroque and fully embrace Neo-Palladian and the emerging Neoclassical style. Out of the seven London church projects, the most astonishing was Galilei's design based on a Doric temple, consisting of a rectangular building, five bays in width and eight in length, standing on a podium of eight steps and surrounded on three sides by an order of freestanding Doric columns; a far cry away from the style that dominated Italy at the time. The Doric temple also stood out as Galilei's only project proposing a rectangular church; elsewhere, he favored circular, square or octagonal layouts, entirely rejecting the traditional basilical forms of his homeland. Afterwards, Galilei acquired a taste for palatial architecture. In 1717, he designed a new royal palace for His Britannic Majesty by the Thames, but in the end he had to content himself with serving lesser patrons and landed nobility, designing Castletown House in Ireland and the east portico of Kimbolton Castle in Cambridgeshire, among other country houses. By 1719, Galilei had grown frustrated with his English clientele and, profusely thanking Lord Molesworth for his patronage, left for Tuscany and returned home. His five year stay in England had not made him rich or renowned... but it had given him the required time to come into his own as an innovative architect with innovative ideas.
DESIGN FOR A DORIC CHURCH IN LONDON
GALILEI'S LONDON PALACE
Back in Tuscany, Galilei fortunately caught the attention of Ferdinando III de' Medici, who already in 1719 named him the chief architect and engineer for court buildings and military fortifications. The Most Serene King's passion was the patronage of music, however, and not architecture. Compared to his later achievements, Galilei's first tenure as the Medici court architect may seem lackluster, for patronage itself was lackluster in these early days, given the dearth of funds and resources. Nevertheless, Galilei received important commissions during this time, which included the renovation of the choir of Cortona Cathedral, additions to the royal villa in Poggio a Caiano, Ferdinando III's preferred residence, and the design and construction of the royal opera house in the Medicean Villa of Pratolino, which headquartered Ferdinando III's musical school, by far his most significant work at the time. With the inauguration of the Regency and the Bavariocracy following Ferdinando's death, the diverse skillset of Galilei was also applied to more practical projects, principally concerning the drainage of malarial swampland in the Maremma and the Val di Chiano for land reclamation. At last, but not least, Galilei was also employed by the Queen Regent as one of the tutors of Cosimo IV, teaching him mathematics alongside Luigi Guido Grandi and the main principles of engineering and architecture. The connections Galilei fostered during his first tenure as court architect would allow him to rise to new heights in the future, especially when King Cosimo came of age.
With the election of Pope Innocent XIII in 1723, however, Galilei left his position in Florence to offer his services to the papal court, with the blessing of the Queen Regent. Rome, at the time, was the proper refuge of Italian architects, with a notable demand for architectural commissions and available resources for projects. This was specially true during the pontificate of the open-handed Innocent XIII, who, in his old age, desired to leave his mark in the ancient urban landscape of the Eternal City. Like his colleague Ferdinando Fuga, Alessandro Galilei would greatly benefit from Roman patronage, indeed perhaps even more so. During the next few years, Galilei would execute many of his renowned masterpieces, which definitively consecrated him as one of the greatest architects of his age. His most famous project was, beyond a doubt, the renovation of the Lateran Basilica. Under papal commission, Galilei would construct the Cappella Medici in the Lateran, which would later serve as the burial site for Innocent XIII. He completely redesigned and rebuilt the cathedral's façade, abandoning all traces of the Baroque in favor of the Neoclassical style. The monumental and quasi-palatial character of Galilei's project for one of the holiest churches in Christendom caused a minor scandal in the Roman artistic circles, but in the end his project prevailed and left a lasting impact in the urban landscape, becoming a reference for future projects.
At the time, the Duke of Urbino, Cardinal de' Medici, also commissioned the façade of the Basilica of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, the national church of Florence in Rome. Contrary to the more controversial Lateran façade, the Prince Gian Gastone insisted on a Baroque design, much to Galilei's chagrin, but which he executed flawlessly, although the construction would only be undertaken in the first half of the 1730's. Galilei's Roman career was briefly interrupted in 1726 and 1727, when he was called to Tuscany to serve as the Secretary of the Royal Household for the Grand Wedding. In this capacity, Galilei oversaw the cleaning-up of Florence for the event, and implemented the development project of the Oltrarno district, with the construction of palatial housing in the southern riverbank to receive the incoming international guests. This experience in developing the Oltrarno would prove invaluable later in life. For now, it had earned him the Grand Cross of the Order of the Lily, the order of merit to award services to the Crown of Etruria that Cosimo IV had created in the aftermath of his wedding.
With the election of Pope Innocent XIII in 1723, however, Galilei left his position in Florence to offer his services to the papal court, with the blessing of the Queen Regent. Rome, at the time, was the proper refuge of Italian architects, with a notable demand for architectural commissions and available resources for projects. This was specially true during the pontificate of the open-handed Innocent XIII, who, in his old age, desired to leave his mark in the ancient urban landscape of the Eternal City. Like his colleague Ferdinando Fuga, Alessandro Galilei would greatly benefit from Roman patronage, indeed perhaps even more so. During the next few years, Galilei would execute many of his renowned masterpieces, which definitively consecrated him as one of the greatest architects of his age. His most famous project was, beyond a doubt, the renovation of the Lateran Basilica. Under papal commission, Galilei would construct the Cappella Medici in the Lateran, which would later serve as the burial site for Innocent XIII. He completely redesigned and rebuilt the cathedral's façade, abandoning all traces of the Baroque in favor of the Neoclassical style. The monumental and quasi-palatial character of Galilei's project for one of the holiest churches in Christendom caused a minor scandal in the Roman artistic circles, but in the end his project prevailed and left a lasting impact in the urban landscape, becoming a reference for future projects.
At the time, the Duke of Urbino, Cardinal de' Medici, also commissioned the façade of the Basilica of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, the national church of Florence in Rome. Contrary to the more controversial Lateran façade, the Prince Gian Gastone insisted on a Baroque design, much to Galilei's chagrin, but which he executed flawlessly, although the construction would only be undertaken in the first half of the 1730's. Galilei's Roman career was briefly interrupted in 1726 and 1727, when he was called to Tuscany to serve as the Secretary of the Royal Household for the Grand Wedding. In this capacity, Galilei oversaw the cleaning-up of Florence for the event, and implemented the development project of the Oltrarno district, with the construction of palatial housing in the southern riverbank to receive the incoming international guests. This experience in developing the Oltrarno would prove invaluable later in life. For now, it had earned him the Grand Cross of the Order of the Lily, the order of merit to award services to the Crown of Etruria that Cosimo IV had created in the aftermath of his wedding.
ALESSANDRO GALILEI
& THE LATERAN
LATERAN BASILICA
SAN GIOVANNI DEI FIORENTINI
PRATOLINO OPERA HOUSE
The apogee of Alessandro Galilei's career was yet to come, however. The Conquest of Tunis in 1728 opened a new chapter for Medici territorial possession in North Africa. Once mere raiders and corsairs, the Order of Santo Stefano intended to establish a permanent presence in the coastline. This involved, of course, the construction of proper fortifications in the key port cities to defend the settlements and military garrisons from inland incursions. Knowing this, the newly adult Cosimo IV called on his former tutor to resume his position as Chief Engineer of Court Buildings and Fortresses. The King's counselors were skeptical that Alessandro Galilei would agree to leave his comfortable life in Florence and Rome to embark on a dangerous mission in newly-conquered Tunisia, of all places. Galilei was now a celebrated architect, and not a simple military engineer. Lesser men might have scoffed at the offer, but Alessandro Galilei was a man of ambition. He would not have left the comforts of Florence to embark on a risky Londoner adventure in his youth otherwise. Challenges came naturally to him.
Of course, it would be unwise to assume that the mere challenge of erecting a defensive network of fortifications along the Tunisian coast was enough to convince Galilei to take the commission. He did not regret his earlier career as a military engineer, but he thought himself destined for greater things now. As it turned out to be, the young Cosimo IV was of similar mind. Military engineers were abundant in Italy, but there was only one Alessandro Galilei, and it was this one Alessandro Galilei whom the Most Serene King thought to be uniquely suited to the task at hand. He was an artist who knew of engineering, and he was an engineer who knew of art. Both these qualities would have to be evenly represented in the architect entrusted with the literal construction of the nascent Kingdom of Africa, for Alessandro Galilei had not been contacted by Cosimo IV to just build fortresses. The Most Serene King had a grander task in mind for his favorite architect and former teacher: the planning, design and execution not of a simple fortress, but of an entire city that would carry his name.
It was the promise of Cosmopoli that ultimately convinced Alessandro Galilei to take the commission. Many architects could claim to have designed fortresses, while others could boast of palaces, churches and cathedrals... but only a select few, if any, had ever had the opportunity of constructing their own city. To an architect of the Enlightenment who was raised on the Italian urbanistic traditions of Leon Battista Alberti, the prospect was too enticing. For all intents and purposes, Alessandro Galilei wished for Cosmopoli, or, as he called it after his classicizing style, "New Carthage", to be his magnum opus. Over the next years, Galilei would design and build strong defenses in Tunis, Hammamet, Monastir, Mahdia and Susa, effectively turning them into fortified ports, but Cosmopoli would be at the forefront of his attention. Located on the island of La Goletta in the entrance to the Bay of Tunis, the future capital of the Kingdom of Africa would form an integrated defensive network with the old capital of Tunis. The latter was invested with fearsome land defenses, but only a select few facing the sea, for Cosmopoli commanded the entrance to the bay.
The new capital was not only designed as an island fortress, however, but as an ideal city. Drawing on the legacy of Alberti and on the lessons learned from the development of Livorno (and also influenced, in some ways, by Thomas More's utopian island society), Galilei designed the capital from scratch to serve as a military, administrative, and religious center. Cosmopoli would be designed to be constructed following a geometric and symmetrical grid, in which the use of space was dictated by the exercise of citizenship. The Viceregal Palace and the basilica of San Cipriano, seat of the Archdiocese of Carthage, on their own, would stand as epitomes of the Neoclassical style, with the latter in particular drawing from Galilei's previous Doric designs, now fully realized. To build New Carthage, Alessandro Galilei pulled no punches when it came to fully embracing Neoclassicism, regardless of the remaining Baroque sensibilities of his homeland. Classicizing architecture and urbanism were indispensable to him in the foundation of New Carthage, risen to the Modern Age from the ashes of Antiquity. He designed a city to be perfect, as well as functional, and to grow into the role Cosimo IV had envisaged for it as the capital of his new kingdom. How much of Galilei's plan would actually be implemented in Cosmopoli over the years was a question for the future, but by the time that Cosmopoli was formally inaugurated in 1737, it was undeniable that Alessandro Galilei had left his mark in the new city.
VIEW OF LA GOLETTA AND TUNIS IN 1728
BASILICA DI SAN CIPRIANO
PALAZZO VICEREGIO
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